QAns 2020 language
Language linguistic 2020
Section A: Very Short Answers
1. (a) Answer the following questions:
1.a.i. Name the standard dialect of Middle English.
> The East Midland Dialect (specifically the London sub-dialect) is recognized as the basis for Standard Middle English, due to the political and economic importance of London and the presence of major institutions.
>
1.a.ii. What is William Caxton's name associated with?
> William Caxton is famously associated with introducing the printing press to England in 1476. This act was crucial for standardizing English spelling, vocabulary, and widely disseminating literature, marking a key technological transition.
>
1.a.iii. What are diphthongs also known as?
> Diphthongs are also known as vowel glides or gliding vowels. They are a single sound unit where the tongue moves smoothly from one vowel position to another within the same syllable (e.g., the vowel sound in buy or toy).
>
1.a.iv. State how the plural morpheme is realized.
> The plural morpheme (a unit of meaning) is realized by different sound forms, known as allomorphs. In English, these are typically /-s/, /-z/, and /-iz/ (e.g., cats, dogs, kisses) depending on the preceding phoneme.
>
1.a.v. Define the term 'conceptual meaning'.
> Conceptual meaning, or denotation, is the core, objective sense of a word as defined in a dictionary. It is the logical, cognitive, or literal content that a word conveys, independent of context, associations, or emotional weight.
>
1.a.vi. Give the connotative meaning of 'cow'.
> The connotative meaning of 'cow' is often a negative association, implying a person (usually a woman) is sluggish, clumsy, lazy, or unintelligent due to an unappealing physical appearance or lack of energy.
>
1.a.vii. Who are the speakers of pidgin?
> Pidgin is spoken by groups of people who do not share a common language but need a basic, simplified means of communication, typically in contexts like trade, colonization, or labor migration across different linguistic backgrounds.
>
1.a.viii. What is psycholinguistics concerned with?
> Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend, and produce language, studying the mind and brain's role in language processing.
>
1. (b) Choose the correct option from the following:
1.b.i. Which of the following refers to the abstract knowledge necessary for using language as communication?
> (1) Langue (Saussure's term for the abstract system of a language, distinct from parole, which is actual speech.)
>
1.b.ii. A sound that is produced when the air pressure behind the complete closure is gradually released is called
> (2) affricate (A sound that begins as a plosive stop and is released slowly as a fricative, e.g., the sounds in judge or church.)
>
1.b.iii. In a hierarchical structure, what do we call the unit that is smaller than the word?
> (3) Morpheme (The morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning, which combines to form words.)
>
1.b.iv. The structural approach is characterized by
> (1) selection and gradation of structures (Organizing the curriculum by choosing and systematically grading specific grammatical patterns or structures for presentation.)
>
1. (c) Fill in the blanks to complete the following statements:
1.c.i. The work titled Morte D'Arthur was written by Sir Thomas Malory.
1.c.ii. A tree-diagram is a phrase marker diagram used to display internal hierarchical structure.
1.c.iii. Direct Method is appropriate for the orderly presentation of language material in the classroom.
1.c.iv. Noam Chomsky introduced the mentalist theory of language learning.
Section B: Short Answers (Any five) (\approx 50 words each)
2.a. Explain the term 'renaissance'.
> The Renaissance is a term meaning "rebirth" that denotes a period in European history (c. 14^{\text{th}} to 16^{\text{th}} centuries). It was characterized by a fervent revival of classical Greek and Roman learning, art, and philosophy. This shift from medieval religious focus to humanism fundamentally shaped modern Western culture and intellectual thought.
>
2.b. State why linguistics is called an empirical science.
> Linguistics is an empirical science because it is based on systematic observation of real-world language data collected from speakers and texts. It formulates hypotheses about language structure, acquisition, and use, and then rigorously tests these hypotheses against verifiable, observable evidence, rather than relying on philosophical speculation.
>
2.c. Explain the attitudinal function of English intonation.
> The attitudinal function of intonation refers to the use of pitch movement and tone to convey the speaker's personal feelings, emotion, or stance toward the message. For example, a falling tone can indicate certainty or finality, while a rising tone often expresses surprise, doubt, or a question, adding crucial emotional colour beyond the literal words.
>
2.d. Distinguish between free morpheme and bound morpheme.
> A free morpheme is a morpheme that can stand alone as a complete, meaningful word (e.g., dog, run). A bound morpheme, conversely, is a unit of meaning that must be attached to another morpheme; it cannot stand alone. Examples include prefixes (un-) and suffixes (-ing, -ness).
>
2.e. Distinguish between deep structure and surface structure.
> In Chomsky's theory, Deep Structure is the abstract, underlying layer containing the sentence's basic meaning and grammatical relations. Surface Structure is the actual, linear form of the sentence as it is spoken or written. Transformational rules link the meaning-bearing deep structure to the observable surface structure.
>
2.f. Explain with examples, the term 'gradable antonyms'.
> Gradable antonyms are pairs of words representing opposite ends of a continuous scale, allowing for degrees of difference. They can be modified by intensifiers. For example, hot and cold are gradable because something can be very hot or slightly cold. Other examples include wide/narrow and old/new.
>
Section C: Medium Answers (Any four) (\approx 150 words each)
3.a. Distinguish between complex words and compound words.
> Both complex and compound words involve combining morphemes, but they differ in the type of morphemes used.
> Complex words are formed through affixation, joining a free morpheme (a root word) with one or more bound morphemes (prefixes or suffixes). This process is called derivation. For instance, the word un-believe-able consists of the free morpheme believe and the bound affixes un- and -able. Complex words often change the word's grammatical category or refine its core meaning.
> Compound words are formed by joining two or more free morphemes (two full, independent words) to create a single lexical item. Examples include sun + flower = sunflower or green + house = greenhouse. The combined meaning of a compound word can be transparent or idiomatic, but the constituent parts are all capable of standing alone. The key distinction is the structural combination: root + affix for complex words, and root + root for compounds.
>
3.b. Distinguish between homonymy and polysemy.
> Homonymy and polysemy are two types of lexical relations concerning words that share the same form but have multiple meanings, differentiated by the relatedness of those meanings.
> Homonymy involves words that are identical in spelling and/or pronunciation but have completely unrelated meanings and typically separate historical origins. For example, bank (river side) and bank (financial institution) are homonyms; their identical form is coincidental. Dictionaries generally list homonyms as separate entries.
> Polysemy involves a single word that has multiple, closely related meanings that have evolved from one original historical source. The various senses are conceptually or metaphorically linked. For instance, the word foot can refer to the appendage, the bottom of a mountain, or the base of a bed. These meanings are related by the concept of 'the bottom part.' Dictionaries list polysemous words under a single entry with numbered definitions.
>
3.c. Explain the concept 'speech community'.
> A 'speech community' is a concept from sociolinguistics, referring to a group of people who share not just a common language, but also common norms, expectations, and values regarding the use of that language. Coined by figures like Dell Hymes, the term highlights that linguistic competence includes knowing how to use language appropriately in social contexts.
> Key characteristics include:
> * Shared Repertoire: Members use at least one language variety in common.
> * Shared Norms: They share common rules about when, how, and why to speak in certain ways (e.g., when to be formal, when to interrupt).
> * Frequent Interaction: The members interact frequently and regularly, allowing them to maintain and reinforce their shared linguistic behaviours.
> A speech community is defined by its social boundaries and shared communicative practices, which may be regional, professional (e.g., a community of scientists), or based on shared interests, demonstrating that language is fundamentally a social tool.
>
3.d. Discuss the constructivist view of learning.
> The constructivist view of learning posits that learners are not passive recipients of information but active constructors of their own knowledge and meaning. Rooted in the work of Piaget and Vygotsky, this perspective views learning as an adaptive process where individuals test hypotheses, build internal mental models (schemata), and refine these models based on new experiences.
> In the context of language learning (Second Language Acquisition), the constructivist approach emphasizes:
> * Meaningful Interaction: Learning is most effective when it is driven by the need to communicate and solve real-world problems.
> * Social Context: Vygotsky's social constructivism stresses that learning is inherently social, occurring through interaction within a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), often guided by peers or teachers.
> * Learner Autonomy: Learners are encouraged to discover grammatical rules and meanings for themselves, fostering deeper understanding and retention.
> This approach shifts the focus from the teacher delivering content to the learner actively engaging with and transforming information.
>
Section D: Long Answers (Any three) (\approx 250 words each)
4.a. Discuss the contribution of Dr. Johnson to the development of the English language.
> Dr. Samuel Johnson's contribution to the English language is immense, principally through his publication of A Dictionary of the English Language in 1755. This work marked a definitive moment in the history of English standardization, moving the language closer to its modern form.
> Before Johnson, English lacked a single, authoritative reference, leading to variations in spelling and usage. Johnson's dictionary provided this much-needed authority. While he initially aimed to "fix" the language, his ultimate genius lay in his method of definition.
> Crucially, Johnson utilized extensive literary quotations—over 114,000—drawn from canonical English writers (like Shakespeare, Milton, and Bacon) to illustrate and justify his definitions. This established the principle of usage as the ultimate authority for defining a word, rather than relying solely on the compiler's personal prescription. This documentary evidence provided a detailed snapshot of English vocabulary and usage in the 18th century, far surpassing any previous dictionary in scale and methodology.
> His work codified spelling and meaning, provided a stable lexicon, and served as the standard reference for over a century, profoundly stabilizing the written language and contributing significantly to the sense of linguistic order that characterizes Modern English.
>
4.b. Discuss the stress patterns of English words.
> English is classified as a stress-timed language, meaning stress (the prominence given to a syllable through loudness, pitch, and duration) is highly significant and forms the rhythm of the language. Word stress in English is lexical and fixed—it always falls on a particular syllable for a given word—but its placement is often unpredictable, making it a challenge for non-native speakers.
> The function of stress is highly important in English as it can:
> * Distinguish Grammatical Category: Stress placement can differentiate between words that are spelled identically but belong to different parts of speech, primarily separating nouns and verbs. For instance, the noun CON-vict (a prisoner) is stressed on the first syllable, while the verb con-VICT (to find guilty) is stressed on the second.
> * Affect Comprehension: Misplacing the stress can make a word difficult or impossible to understand (e.g., saying PHO-to-gra-phy instead of pho-TO-gra-phy).
> While there are complex rules related to suffixes and word origin (e.g., words ending in -ic often have stress on the preceding syllable: cli-MA-tic), the sheer number of exceptions makes stress a pattern that is best acquired through extensive exposure rather than reliance on simple rules. Mastering the stress patterns is essential for achieving native-like fluency and clarity in spoken English.
>
4.d. Write a note on the distinctive features of the communicative approach to language learning.
> The Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) approach emerged in the 1970s, shifting the focus of language instruction from mastery of grammatical structures (linguistic competence) to the development of communicative competence—the ability to use language effectively and appropriately in real-life social situations.
> Distinctive Features of CLT:
> * Focus on Meaning and Fluency: The primary goal is successful communication. Learners are encouraged to convey their meaning even if their grammar is imperfect. Fluency is often prioritized over absolute accuracy in early stages.
> * Task-Based Learning: Activities are designed as meaningful tasks that require genuine information exchange, such as problem-solving, role-playing, information gap activities, or negotiations. This necessitates interaction and negotiation of meaning.
> * Authentic Materials: CLT utilizes materials that reflect real-world language use (e.g., train schedules, menus, unscripted dialogues, news reports) to prepare learners for authentic contexts outside the classroom.
> * Learner-Centred and Collaborative: The classroom becomes an interactive community. Students engage extensively in pair and group work, promoting collaboration and self-correction. The teacher acts as a facilitator or monitor, rather than the sole source of knowledge.
> * Integration of Skills: All four skills (listening, speaking, reading, writing) are typically integrated rather than taught in isolation, reflecting how language is used naturally.
> In summary, CLT views language primarily as a tool for communication and learning as a creative process of developing and using functional language skills.
>
Section E: Very Long Answers (Any three) (\approx 300 words each)
5.a. Discuss the distinctive features of human language and how it differs from animal communication.
> Human language is distinguished from all forms of animal communication by a set of criteria known as Hockett's Design Features. While animal systems serve immediate functional needs (like mating or alarm calls), human language possesses recursive and flexible properties that enable infinite expression.
> The most significant differences are:
> * Duality of Patterning: Human language operates on two levels: a small, finite set of meaningless sounds (phonemes) combine to form a vast, virtually infinite set of meaningful words (morphemes/lexicon). Animal communication is a one-to-one system; a set call has one fixed meaning.
> * Productivity (Creativity): Humans can generate and comprehend an infinite number of novel sentences that have never been uttered before, thanks to a recursive grammar. Animal signals are a closed system; they can only produce a fixed, finite set of messages.
> * Displacement: Human language allows speakers to refer to concepts, events, or entities that are displaced in time and space—discussing the past, the future, abstract ideas, or imaginary worlds. Most animal communication is limited to stimuli immediately present in the environment (the 'here and now').
> * Arbitrariness: There is no necessary or inherent link between a linguistic sign (the word dog) and the object it represents. This symbolic relationship must be learned. Many animal signals, however, are iconic or directly tied to the stimulus (e.g., a monkey's aggressive posture).
> * Cultural Transmission: The specific language a child speaks is not genetically programmed but is learned and transmitted from one generation to the next within a speech community. While animals may inherit the capacity for calls, the details of human language are cultural artifacts.
> These features collectively demonstrate that human language is a uniquely powerful system enabling abstract reasoning and the accumulation of collective knowledge, far exceeding the functional limits of animal signaling.
>
5.b. Discuss the principles of IC analysis and bring out its weaknesses.
> Immediate Constituent (IC) Analysis is a technique developed within American structuralism (Bloomfield, Wells) to describe the grammatical structure of sentences by segmenting them into their constituent parts.
> Principles of IC Analysis:
> * Binary Cutting: The core principle is that a sentence is sequentially divided into two main components, its Immediate Constituents (ICs), starting with the largest break (e.g., NP + VP). This recursive division continues until the ultimate constituent—the morpheme—is reached.
> * Hierarchical Structure: The resulting tree diagram visually represents the hierarchical grouping of words into phrases, reflecting the speaker's intuition about how words structurally belong together.
> * Substitution Test: Constituents are identified by checking if a group of words can be replaced by a single pro-form (like he or did) without affecting the sentence's grammaticality.
> Weaknesses of IC Analysis:
> IC Analysis, due to its strict focus on the linear surface structure, was eventually superseded by Transformational Grammar because of several limitations:
> * Inability to Resolve Ambiguity: It fails to explain structural ambiguity. A sentence like "The police stopped the car with a siren" has two meanings (the police or the car had the siren), but IC analysis can only produce one surface-level diagram.
> * Discontinuous Constituents: It struggles to analyze constituents that are separated or interrupted by other words, such as phrasal verbs like turn down in "They turned the music down."
> * Failure to Show Relationships: It cannot account for the deep structural relationship between grammatically related sentences, such as the active sentence "John broke the vase" and its passive counterpart "The vase was broken by John," which share the same core meaning.
> * Limited Generativity: It is primarily a descriptive tool for existing sentences and cannot fully explain how speakers generate or understand the infinite number of possible grammatical sentences (the creative aspect of language use).
>
5.c. Discuss the processes involved in the standardization of a language.
> Language standardization is a social and political process by which one dialect or variety is elevated and established as the official, public, and institutional norm. This process is crucial for the efficient functioning of complex modern states and typically involves four major, overlapping stages:
> * Selection of Norms: This is the initial stage where a specific regional or social dialect is chosen to be the standard. The choice is rarely purely linguistic; it is generally based on the political, economic, or cultural prestige of the community that speaks it (e.g., the selection of the East Midland/London dialect for English).
> * Codification (Fixing the Form): This involves establishing stable, definitive rules for the chosen variety. Codification results in the publication of authoritative reference works such as dictionaries, grammar books, and spelling manuals. This process minimizes variation, fixing the forms of orthography, morphology, and syntax, thereby making the language more uniform for written communication.
> * Elaboration of Function (Functional Expansion): The standard variety is expanded in function to be usable across the full spectrum of sophisticated modern life. This involves developing its lexicon and phraseology to handle complex and abstract discourse in formal domains like science, law, governance, and literature. This expansion is essential for the standard to serve as a high-status language in all societal functions.
> * Implementation and Acceptance (Prestige and Spread): The standard form is actively promoted and disseminated through key social institutions—most notably the education system, the media, and government administration. Acceptance by the population turns the selected dialect into a prestige variety. Adherence to the standard often becomes a prerequisite for social mobility and professional success, enforcing its status as the common public code.
> This multi-stage process results in a standardized language that is stable, widely recognized, and socially empowered.
(1) Langue
(2) affricate
(1) selection and gradation of structures
- Answer any five from the following questions (each within 50 words):
4.(a) Discuss the contribution of Dr. Johnson to the development of the English language.
- Standardization of Spelling and Usage: Before Johnson's dictionary, English spelling was often inconsistent and varied among writers. His dictionary provided a consistent reference for spellings and usage for over 40,000 words, which helped to regularize the written language across the English-speaking world.
- Comprehensive Definitions with Literary Quotations: A significant innovation was the use of over 100,000 illustrative quotations from a wide range of reputable authors (such as Shakespeare, Milton, and Dryden) to demonstrate words in context. This approach showed how words were used in practice, rather than just providing simple synonyms or abstract definitions, and set a new standard for future lexicography.
- Detailed Structure and Organization: Johnson's work was meticulous in its organization, often dividing words into multiple, numbered senses with clear explanations of their meanings. For example, the word "take" had 134 definitions. This systematic approach made the dictionary a practical and valuable tool for writers, scholars, and everyday speakers.
- Influence on Future Dictionaries: Johnson established a methodology for dictionary production that influenced all subsequent lexicographers, including Noah Webster in America and the eventual compilers of the Oxford English Dictionary. The dictionary remained the pre-eminent authority on the English language for over 150 years.
- A Literary Work: Beyond its function as a reference book, Johnson's dictionary is also considered a great literary work in its own right, peppered with his sharp wit, personal opinions, and insightful commentary on 18th-century life and society. [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]
4.(b) Discuss the stress patterns of English words.
- Two-SSyllable Words: A common pattern in English is the stress shift depending on the word's grammatical function. Most two-syllable nouns and adjectives are stressed on the first syllable (e.g., PRE-sent, OB-ject, PUR-ple), while most two-syllable verbs and prepositions are stressed on the second syllable (e.g., pre-SENT, ob-JECT, a-MONG).
- Words with Suffixes: Suffixes often determine stress placement in longer words:
- Stress on the Penultimate (Second-to-Last) Syllable: Words ending in suffixes like -ic, -sion, or -tion usually place the stress on the syllable immediately before the suffix (e.g., tele-VI-sion, eco-NO-mic, classifi-CA-tion).
- Stress on the Antepenultimate (Third-to-Last) Syllable: Words ending in suffixes such as -cy, -ty, -phy, -gy, or -al are typically stressed on the third syllable from the end (e.g., demo-CRA-cy, ge-O-graphy, na-TION-al).
- Stressed Suffixes: Some suffixes like -eer, -ese, -ique, and -ette take the primary stress themselves (e.g., puppe-TEER, Japan-ESE, un-IQUE).
- Compound Words: The stress pattern of compound words often depends on their part of speech. Compound nouns usually stress the first part (BLACKbird, FOOTball), while compound adjectives and verbs typically stress the second part (bad-TEM-pered, under-STAND). [8, 12, 13]
4.(c) Discuss the concept of synonymy.
- Near Synonyms (Pleonasm): These are the most common type. They share a core meaning but differ in minor ways:
- Connotation: Words may have different emotional associations. For instance, 'cheap' and 'inexpensive' both refer to low cost, but 'cheap' often has a negative connotation (suggesting poor quality), while 'inexpensive' is neutral or positive.
- Formality/Register: Words can vary by their level of formality. 'Begin' is less formal than 'commence', and 'buy' is less formal than 'purchase'. The appropriate choice depends on the context (e.g., a casual conversation versus a legal document).
- Collocation: Words may be used with different sets of other words. We might talk about a 'heavy burden' but not a 'heavy load of responsibility' (instead using 'heavy responsibility') in the same fixed expression.
- Dialect/Variety: Usage can differ between dialects, such as British English 'lift' versus American English 'elevator'.
- Absolute Synonyms: While rare, some terms in technical or highly specific fields might be considered absolute synonyms, though even these can have different historical origins or preferred uses in different sub-fields.
5.(a) Discuss the distinctive features of human language and how it differs from animal communication.
- Displacement: Humans can talk about things that are not physically present, referring to past, future, or hypothetical events and abstract ideas. A person can discuss a vacation taken last year or a plan for tomorrow. Animal communication is typically limited to the "here and now" (e.g., a warning call for an immediate predator).
- Arbitrariness: There is no inherent, natural connection between a word's sound (or form) and the object or concept it represents. The word 'dog' does not look or sound like an actual dog. This is evident in the variety of words for the same object across different languages ('perro' in Spanish, 'chien' in French). Animal signals usually have a direct link to the message (e.g., a specific alarm call).
- Productivity (Creativity): Humans can create an infinite number of new sentences and messages from a finite set of sounds and grammatical rules. We constantly produce and understand novel utterances. Animal communication systems are generally closed and fixed, with a limited number of messages that cannot be combined to create fundamentally new meanings.
- Cultural Transmission: Language is not biologically inherited; a human infant born in any part of the world can learn any human language. Language is learned through interaction with a specific culture and community. Animal communication systems, however, are largely instinctive and genetically passed down.
- Duality of Patterning: Human language operates on two levels: a surface level of sounds (phonemes) which are meaningless on their own, and a deeper level where these sounds are combined into meaningful units (morphemes and words). The sound 'p', 'i', and 't' have no meaning, but combined as 'pit', they form a word. This efficiency allows for a vast vocabulary using a small set of basic sounds. Animal communication lacks this dual structure.
- Reflexivity: Humans can use language to talk about language itself (e.g., discussing grammar rules or defining a word in a dictionary). Animal systems do not possess this self-referential ability. [19, 20, 21, 22, 23]
5.(d) Discuss the different sources and causes of errors made by L2 learners.
- Examples:
- Grammar: A Spanish speaker might say, 'I have 30 years' instead of 'I am 30 years old' (a direct translation of "tengo 30 años").
- Pronunciation: Japanese speakers may struggle with distinguishing between the /l/ and /r/ sounds because their native phonology does not differentiate them in the same way.
- Vocabulary/False Cognates: Words that look or sound similar in L1 and L2 but have different meanings can lead to errors.
- Examples:
- Overgeneralization: Applying a rule to contexts where it does not belong. A learner who has correctly learned the past tense for regular verbs might overgeneralize the -ed ending to irregular verbs, producing 'goed' or 'eated' instead of 'went' and 'ate'.
- Incomplete Rule Application: The learner has learned a rule but hasn't mastered all its conditions or exceptions.
- Fossilization: This occurs when a specific error becomes a permanent habit in the learner's L2, resistant to correction, even as the rest of their language proficiency improves.
- Context of Learning: Errors can also be induced by the learning environment, such as poorly sequenced teaching materials, insufficient practice opportunities, or ambiguous input from the teacher. [29, 30, 31]
2016
- Smog: a blend of "smoke" and "fog."
- Brunch: a blend of "breakfast" and "lunch."
- Government and Law: parliament, court, justice, jury
- Food: beef, pork, mutton, cuisine
- Art and Literature: paint, poet, novel, tragedy
- Fashion: dress, gown, style, fashion
- Nouns: Inflection often marks number (singular/plural) and sometimes case (e.g., possessive). For example, the morpheme '-s' in 'cats' indicates plurality, and '-’s' in 'cat’s' indicates possession [1].
- Verbs: Verbs are inflected to show tense, aspect, person, and number. Examples include the '-ed' in 'walked' for past tense, '-ing' in 'walking' for present participle/progressive aspect, and '-s' in 'walks' for third-person singular present tense [1].
- Adjectives: Adjectives use inflection to indicate degrees of comparison. For example, the morpheme '-er' in 'taller' indicates the comparative degree, and '-est' in 'tallest' indicates the superlative degree [1].
- Adverbs: A limited number of adverbs also take the comparative and superlative suffixes, such as 'faster' and 'fastest' [1]. [6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
- Segmentation: The initial sentence is divided into two primary, immediate constituents (e.g., Noun Phrase and Verb Phrase in an English sentence) [1].
- Binary Division: Each major constituent is then successively and exclusively divided into two further sub-constituents [1].
- Repetition: This binary division continues until no further grammatical divisions are possible [1].
- Ultimate Constituents: The final, indivisible units reached through this process are the "ultimate constituents," which are typically individual morphemes [1]. [16, 17, 18, 19, 20]
- Structural Model: Focuses on the physical arrangement and hierarchical grouping of words and morphemes within a sentence [1].
- Functional Model: Emphasizes the grammatical roles or functions that the constituents play within the larger structure (e.g., subject, object, predicate) [1]. [21, 22, 23, 24, 25]
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