MA 2nd Semester (New) 2020 — Literary Criticism: Classical to Modern paper you uploaded earlier (pages 1–4).
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🟩 Page 1 — Question 1 (a): One/Two Sentence Answers (1×8=8)
(i) On what ground did Plato reject poets from his ideal society?
→ Plato rejected poets because he believed they imitate appearances, not truth, and therefore mislead people and corrupt moral values.
(ii) What, according to Aristotle, is ‘Catharsis’?
→ Aristotle defines Catharsis as the emotional purification or release of pity and fear that the audience experiences through tragedy.
(iii) State any two faults or defects of style pointed out by Longinus in his work entitled On the Sublime.
→ Longinus mentions (1) bombast or exaggerated passion, and (2) puerility or affectation, as faults that spoil sublimity.
(iv) What is meant by the phrase ‘art for art’s sake’?
→ It means art should be created for its own beauty and pleasure, not for moral, political, or utilitarian purposes.
(v) State any one feature of Neoclassical Criticism.
→ Neoclassical criticism values reason, order, and adherence to classical rules in literature.
(vi) Mention the names of any two exponents of Romantic Criticism.
→ Samuel Taylor Coleridge and William Wordsworth.
(vii) Who was the main figure behind the Touchstone Method?
→ Matthew Arnold.
(viii) Mention the name of the book by F. R. Leavis in which the essay “Line of Wit” appears.
→ The Common Pursuit.
🟩 Page 2 — Question 1 (b): Choose the Correct Option (1×4=4)
(i) Principles of Literary Criticism is a book by —
✅ I. A. Richards
(ii) Which one among the following cannot be considered a theme of Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare?
✅ Idea of the Universal
(iii) Who defined poetry as the “spontaneous overflow of powerful emotions”?
✅ William Wordsworth
(iv) In which year was Coleridge’s Biographia Literaria published?
✅ 1817
(c) Fill in the blanks (1×4=4)
(i) The root of Modern literary criticism can be traced to France from where it diffused to England and other parts of Europe.
(ii) Plato mentions an “ancient quarrel” between poetry and philosophy in his book titled Republic.
(iii) Sublimity is a quality whose effect is to “transport” (ekstasis) the reader out of themselves.
(iv) John Crowe Ransom first used the term New Criticism.
🟩 Page 3 — Question 2: 50 Words Each (Any Five)
(a) What according to Wimsatt and Beardsley does the term “Affective Fallacy” mean?
→ “Affective Fallacy” means judging a poem by the emotional effect it produces on readers rather than by its own structure or meaning. Wimsatt and Beardsley said criticism should focus on the text, not readers’ feelings.
(b) Who was the founder of the journal titled Scrutiny? What was its aim?
→ The journal Scrutiny was founded by F. R. Leavis. Its aim was to promote serious literary evaluation and moral criticism of English literature.
(c) Explain the concept of Touchstone Method.
→ Matthew Arnold’s “Touchstone Method” suggests comparing a poet’s work with short passages from the great masters of poetry like Homer or Shakespeare to test its quality.
(d) State any two important characteristics of English criticism during the Renaissance.
→ Renaissance criticism revived interest in classical texts and emphasized reason, harmony, and imitation of ancient Greek and Roman models.
(e) Write briefly on one theme from Coleridge’s Biographia Literaria.
→ One major theme is the role of imagination. Coleridge distinguishes between primary and secondary imagination as the creative power behind poetry.
(f) Mention two faults of Shakespeare as pointed out by Johnson.
→ Johnson said Shakespeare neglected the unities of time and place and sometimes used coarse or improper language.
🟩 Question 3: 150 Words Each (Any Four)
(a) Write briefly on Pope’s idea of Nature.
→ For Alexander Pope, “Nature” means universal truth, reason, and order. It is not just the physical world but the ideal standard of beauty and morality reflected in classical works. A poet should follow Nature, which is also the same as following reason and ancient rules. True art, for Pope, imitates Nature and teaches moral lessons through clarity, balance, and harmony.
(b) What according to Wordsworth is the function of poetry?
→ Wordsworth said poetry is the “spontaneous overflow of powerful emotions” recollected in tranquility. Its function is to convey deep human feelings through simple and natural language. Poetry should purify emotions, awaken sympathy, and connect the reader with universal human experiences and nature.
(c) What are the three ways to maintain disinterestedness according to Matthew Arnold?
→ In The Function of Criticism at the Present Time, Arnold said a critic must be: (1) Free from personal bias, (2) Impartial toward contemporary politics or religion, and (3) Devoted to truth and the best ideas. This disinterested spirit helps criticism guide culture and improve moral and intellectual life.
(d) Explain Longinus’ concept of the Sublime.
→ Longinus defines the sublime as a quality in writing that uplifts the reader and gives them a sense of greatness and elevation. It comes from noble thoughts, strong emotions, proper language, dignified style, and skillful composition. True sublimity transports the audience beyond themselves.
(e) Describe Aristotle’s use of the word “Catharsis” in his definition of tragedy.
→ Aristotle used Catharsis in Poetics to describe the emotional cleansing of pity and fear that occurs when watching a tragedy. Through identification with the tragic hero, the audience experiences emotional release and moral purification.
🟩 Page 4 — Question 4: 250 Words Each (Any Three)
(a) Give an idea of Platonic Theory of Forms.
→ Plato’s Theory of Forms explains that the physical world is not the true reality but only an imperfect copy of eternal and unchanging ideas or “Forms.” Every object or quality in the world, like beauty, justice, or goodness, has a perfect Form existing in the spiritual realm. The material world is an imitation of these Forms. According to Plato, only philosophers can understand these higher realities through reason. In his Republic, he says poets and artists imitate appearances, not the true Forms, and thus move people further away from truth. Therefore, he criticizes poetry as false imitation. However, his concept of ideal Forms became the foundation for later theories of aesthetics and idealism.
(b) Examine the role of Philip Sidney as a critic with reference to An Apology for Poetry.
→ Philip Sidney’s An Apology for Poetry (1595) is one of the earliest critical essays in English defending poetry. Sidney answers Puritan critics who accused poetry of being immoral and useless. He argues that poetry is both delightful and instructive; it teaches virtue through pleasure. He calls poets the “makers” who combine imagination and moral purpose. He also says poetry is superior to philosophy and history because it can present ideal truth and inspire moral action. Sidney’s criticism reflects Renaissance humanism, drawing from Aristotle and Horace. His balanced view of poetry as both moral and artistic makes him a pioneer of English literary criticism.
(c) Elaborate the idea of Imagination as a major theme in Romantic literary criticism.
→ Imagination is central to Romantic criticism. Romantic poets like Wordsworth and Coleridge believed imagination was the creative power that shapes reality. Wordsworth saw it as emotional and spiritual, helping poets feel and express unity with nature. Coleridge, in Biographia Literaria, distinguishes between primary imagination (the natural human power to perceive the world) and secondary imagination (the artistic power that reshapes and creates). Imagination unites reason and emotion, giving poetry originality and depth. It transforms the ordinary into the beautiful and the finite into the infinite. Thus, imagination becomes the source of artistic creation and a way to perceive truth beyond logic.
(d) Outline the main concerns of the New Critical advocacy of textual “close reading.”
→ New Criticism, developed by critics like I. A. Richards, Cleanth Brooks, and John Crowe Ransom, focuses on “close reading” of the text itself, independent of author, reader, or context. It treats a literary work as a self-contained unit of meaning. Critics study structure, imagery, paradox, irony, and tension within the text to discover its organic unity. They reject biographical or historical approaches (called the “intentional” and “affective” fallacies). The goal is to understand how meaning arises from the interaction of form and content. This method gave literary criticism a scientific and objective character in the 20th century.
🟩 Question 5: 300 Words Each (Any Three)
(a) Assess the importance of Johnson’s Preface in the context of 18th century Neoclassical criticism.
→ Samuel Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare (1765) is a landmark of 18th-century Neoclassical criticism. Johnson defends Shakespeare’s greatness while applying the Neoclassical values of reason, morality, and nature. He praises Shakespeare for his faithful representation of human nature and universal emotions, not bound by time or place. Johnson rejects the strict classical unities of time and place, arguing that Shakespeare’s plays reflect real life. He balances moral judgment with artistic appreciation, saying literature should both instruct and delight. Unlike earlier rigid critics, Johnson values truth to nature and human experience more than adherence to rules. His rational, balanced, and humanistic approach represents the maturity of Neoclassical criticism and bridges it toward modern realism.
(b) Discuss the important premises of F. R. Leavis’ New Criticism.
→ F. R. Leavis emphasized close textual analysis and moral seriousness in literature. In his journal Scrutiny and essays like The Great Tradition, he focused on how great works express a mature moral awareness. For Leavis, criticism should evaluate literature by its “moral sensibility,” not by author’s intention or reader’s emotion. He admired writers like George Eliot, Henry James, and D. H. Lawrence for their moral depth and organic form. Leavis believed literature preserves cultural values and trains the reader’s moral perception. His method combined New Critical precision with ethical concern. He helped shape English studies into a discipline emphasizing integrity, seriousness, and human value in art.
(c) Trace the history of Classical Roman Criticism and highlight important texts.
→ Roman criticism developed under the influence of Greek critics, especially Aristotle. Cicero emphasized oratory and style in his works De Oratore and Brutus, stressing clarity, harmony, and decorum. Horace’s Ars Poetica became a key text, giving practical advice to poets—such as unity, proportion, and the need for art to “instruct and delight.” Quintilian’s Institutio Oratoria focused on the education of the ideal orator who combines eloquence with virtue. Roman criticism valued moderation, discipline, and moral purpose in art. It shaped Renaissance and Neoclassical criticism through its emphasis on rules, decorum, and imitation of classical models.
(d) Discuss the significance of S. T. Coleridge as a Romantic critic with reference to Biographia Literaria.
→ S. T. Coleridge is one of the most important Romantic critics. In Biographia Literaria (1817), he develops theories of imagination, fancy, and poetic genius. He distinguishes between primary imagination (the power of perceiving reality) and secondary imagination (the creative power of the poet). Coleridge argues that poetry combines emotion and intellect, reconciling opposites through imagination. He rejects the mechanical imitation of nature and emphasizes organic unity in poetry. Coleridge also analyses Wordsworth’s poetic theory, agreeing with his focus on emotion but differing on the use of language. His criticism combines philosophy, psychology, and aesthetics, influencing later critics like T. S. Eliot. Coleridge thus established a foundation for modern literary theory.
(ii) What, according to Aristotle, is 'Catharsis'?
Answer: According to Aristotle, 'Catharsis' is the purification or purgation of emotions, particularly pity and fear, through art or any extreme change in emotion that results in renewal and restoration.
(iii) State any two faults or defects of style pointed out by Longinus in his work entitled On the Sublime.
Answer: Two faults or defects of style pointed out by Longinus are bombast (pompous and inflated language) and puerility (a childish and trivial style).
(iv) What is meant by the phrase 'art for art's sake'?
Answer: 'Art for art's sake' is the belief that art is autonomous and has no moral, didactic, or utilitarian purpose. The value of art is intrinsic and should be judged on its own merits, not on any external purpose.
(v) State any one feature of Neoclassical Criticism.
Answer: One feature of Neoclassical Criticism is its emphasis on reason, order, and decorum. It valued classical writers and rules, believing that art should be a rational and controlled process.
(vi) Mention the names of any two exponents of Romantic Criticism.
Answer: Two exponents of Romantic Criticism are William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
(vii) Who was the main figure behind the Touchstone Method?
Answer: The main figure behind the Touchstone Method was Matthew Arnold.
(viii) Mention the name of the book by F. R. Leavis in which the essay, Line of Wit appears.
Answer: The essay Line of Wit appears in F. R. Leavis's book, Revaluation: Tradition & Development in English Poetry.
Page 1: Short Answers
1. (a) Answer the following questions in one/two sentence(s): (1x8=8)
(i) On what ground did Plato reject poets from his ideal society?
Plato rejected poets because he viewed their art as mere imitation (mimesis), which is thrice removed from the truth of the Forms, and because poetry can corrupt citizens by appealing to their lower passions and irrational emotions instead of reason.
(ii) What, according to Aristotle, is 'Catharsis'?
According to Aristotle, Catharsis is the purification or purgation of the emotions of pity and fear, which are aroused in the audience by watching a tragedy, leading to an emotional and psychological release.
(iii) State any two faults or defects of style pointed out by Longinus in his work entitled On the Sublime.
Two faults of style pointed out by Longinus are Turgidity (bombastic or inflated language) and Puerility (childishness or a pedantic conceit that becomes frigid).
(iv) What is meant by the phrase 'art for art's sake'?
The phrase 'art for art's sake' (L'art pour l'art) expresses the philosophy that true art is autonomous and should be judged on its own terms, independent of any external social, moral, or didactic (teaching) function.
(v) State any one feature of Neoclassical Criticism.
One prominent feature of Neoclassical Criticism is the emphasis on reason, order, and correctness, often by advocating the imitation of classical Greek and Roman authors and adherence to strict rules like the three dramatic unities.
(vi) Mention the names of any two exponents of Romantic Criticism.
Two major exponents of Romantic Criticism are William Wordsworth and S. T. Coleridge.
(vii) Who was the main figure behind the Touchstone Method?
The main figure who introduced the Touchstone Method was Matthew Arnold, who proposed using lines or passages from great poets as a standard to test the merit of other poetry.
(viii) Mention the name of the book of F. R. Leavis in which the essay, Line of Wit appears.
The essay The Line of Wit appears in F. R. Leavis's book, Revaluation: Tradition and Development in English Poetry (1936).
Page 2: Multiple Choice and Fill in the Blanks
(b) Choose the correct option from the following: (1x4=4)
(i) Principles of Literary Criticism is a book by
(3) I. A. Richards
(ii) Which one among the following points cannot be considered a theme of Samuel Johnson's Preface to Shakespeare?
(4) Idea of the Universal
(Johnson's Preface focuses on the definition of a classic, the importance of nature/realism, and his critique of the Classical Unities of Time and Place, not 'Idea of the Universal').
(iii) Who defined poetry as the 'spontaneous overflow of powerful emotions'?
(4) William Wordsworth
(From the Preface to Lyrical Ballads).
(iv) In which year was S. T. Coleridge's Biographia Literaria published?
(2) 1817
(c) Fill in the blanks: (1x4=4)
(i) The root of Neoclassical literary criticism can be traced to France from where it diffused to England and other parts of Europe.
(ii) Plato mentions an 'ancient quarrel' between poetry and philosophy in his book titled, The Republic.
(iii) Sublime (or Loftiness) is a quality whose effect is to 'transport' (ekstasis) the reader out of themselves.
(iv) John Crowe Ransom first used the term 'New Criticism'.
Page 3: Medium and Long Answers
2. Answer any five from the following questions (each in around 50 words): (2x5=10)
(a) What, according to Wimsatt and Beardsley, does the term 'Affective Fallacy' mean?
The Affective Fallacy is a term coined by Wimsatt and Beardsley in the essay The Affective Fallacy (1946). It refers to the error of judging or evaluating a poem or literary work by its emotional effects on the reader. They argue that the reader's personal emotional response is subjective and irrelevant to the objective critical analysis of the text itself.
(b) Who was the founder of the journal titled, Scrutiny? What was its aim?
The founder of the influential literary journal Scrutiny (1932-1953) was F. R. Leavis. Its primary aim was to establish a high standard of critical seriousness and to examine the relationship between literature, culture, and society, often championing the moral and intellectual value of literature.
(c) Explain the concept of Touchstone Method.
The Touchstone Method, proposed by Matthew Arnold, is a method of evaluating poetry by comparing a poem with a few lines or short passages (the "touchstones") taken from the universally acknowledged masterpieces of great poets like Homer, Dante, and Milton. The quality of a new poem is judged by its resemblance in substance and manner to the excellence found in these selected lines.
(d) State any two important characteristics of English criticism during the Renaissance.
* Defense of Poetry: Critics like Sir Philip Sidney sought to defend poetry against moral and religious attacks (like Plato's), emphasizing its moral utility and imaginative power.
* Imitation of Classical Models: There was a renewed interest in and attempt to apply the rules and principles of classical critics like Aristotle and Horace, particularly concerning genre, style, and structure.
(e) Write briefly on any one of the themes evident in the prescribed chapters from Coleridge's Biographia Literaria.
One major theme in Biographia Literaria is the distinction between Fancy and Imagination. Coleridge defines Fancy as the mechanical and associative faculty that combines existing images without altering them. Imagination, on the other hand, is the higher, creative, and "esemplastic" power that fuses, shapes, and recreates diverse elements into a unified, organic whole, and is essential for true poetic creation.
(f) Mention two faults of Shakespeare as pointed out by Samuel Johnson.
* Disregard for Poetic Justice: Shakespeare often fails to distribute good and evil justly, allowing good characters to suffer and evil ones to triumph, which Johnson considered morally unsound.
* Sacrificing Virtue for Convenience: Johnson criticizes Shakespeare for frequently abandoning his central plot and serious themes to introduce farce, buffoonery, or wordplay, often to please the audience, which breaks the dramatic illusion.
3. Answer any four from the following questions (each in around 150 words): (3x4=12)
(a) Write briefly on Pope's idea of Nature.
Alexander Pope, a key figure in Neoclassical criticism, stressed the importance of Nature as a guiding principle in art. For Pope, Nature does not mean the wild, untamed physical world, but rather universal, essential human experience and common sense, which is unchanging, rational, and universally true. It is the idealised standard that all art should imitate. He advised the poet to "First follow Nature, and your judgment frame / By her just standard, which is still the same." A poet's task is not to invent but to discover and express this permanent, rational truth in elegant and correct language, making what was often thought, well expressed.
(b) What, according to Wordsworth, is the function of poetry?
In his Preface to Lyrical Ballads, William Wordsworth states that the primary function of poetry is to give immediate pleasure and to enlarge and purify human emotion. Poetry is fundamentally the "spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings" which "takes its origin from emotion recollected in tranquility." The poet is a person of greater sensibility who helps the reader to understand their own nature and the world around them by stripping away the dullness of routine and revealing the beauty and wonder of everyday life. Thus, the function is both delightful and didactic (in a profound moral sense), educating the heart and mind through genuine emotion.
(c) What are the three ways to maintain disinterestedness according to Matthew Arnold as stated in his The Function of Criticism at the Present Time?
In The Function of Criticism at the Present Time, Matthew Arnold advocates for the critic's need for disinterestedness, which means keeping the critical activity free from immediate practical or political aims. The three ways to maintain this are:
* Keep aloof from the practical view of things: The critic must resist being drawn into political or religious controversies and focus purely on the objective pursuit of truth and "the best that is known and thought in the world."
* Be sincere and open-minded: The critic must allow their thought to play freely on all subjects, resisting prejudices and the dominant intellectual currents of their own class or party.
* Create a current of fresh ideas: The critic's ultimate aim is to create an intellectual and spiritual atmosphere conducive to great creative works, a 'free play of mind' that avoids insularity and provincialism.
(d) Explain Longinus' concept of the 'sublime'.
In On the Sublime, Longinus defines the Sublime as a certain distinction and excellence in discourse that has the power to transport (or raise) the reader beyond themselves into a state of ecstasy (ekstasis). It is not just persuasion or correctness, but a sudden, irresistible force that affects the reader profoundly, leaving them with an overwhelming sense of awe and loftiness. Longinus identifies five principal sources of the Sublime: Greatness of thought, vehement passion, the use of Figures of speech, noble diction, and dignified composition. The true Sublime must not only be powerful but must also be a product of a "great soul" or moral excellence in the writer.
(e) Describe briefly Aristotle's use of the word 'Catharsis' in his definition of tragedy as evident in Poetics.
Aristotle defines tragedy as an imitation of a serious action, which through pity and fear, achieves the proper purgation of these emotions—Catharsis. Derived from a medical term meaning "purging" or "purification," Catharsis is the effect tragedy has on the audience. When spectators witness the tragic hero's fall (arousing pity for the undeserved suffering and fear that such a fate could be theirs), these heightened emotions are worked out and released, bringing about an emotional relief or moral cleansing. The experience is ultimately beneficial, making the emotions less overwhelming in real life and restoring a psychological balance.
Page 4: Long Answers
4. Answer any three from the following questions (each in around 250 words): (6x3=18)
(a) Give an idea of Platonic theory of Forms.
The Platonic Theory of Forms, or Theory of Ideas, is the metaphysical cornerstone of Plato's philosophy. It posits that the physical world we perceive with our senses is not the ultimate reality, but only a changing, imperfect reflection of a higher, eternal realm of Forms.
* The Forms: These Forms are perfect, eternal, and non-physical archetypes of all things and concepts—such as Justice, Beauty, Goodness, and a perfect Circle. They are the true objects of knowledge. For example, every beautiful object in the world is beautiful only because it "participates" in the perfect Form of Beauty.
* The Physical World: The things in our material world are merely imperfect copies of the Forms.
* The Realm of Art: When Plato applies this to art, he argues that a painter or poet merely imitates the things in the physical world (like a bed), which are already imperfect copies of the Form (the perfect, ideal Bed). Therefore, art is thrice removed from reality/truth (the Form) and is inherently deceptive. This is the main reason he banishes poets from his Republic, as their work distracts citizens from the pursuit of true knowledge (the Forms). The theory establishes a hierarchy of reality where the Forms are supreme, followed by the sensible world, and lastly, art.
(b) Examine the role of Philip Sidney as a critic with particular reference to his An Apology for Poetry.
Sir Philip Sidney's An Apology for Poetry (c. 1581) is the most significant piece of English literary criticism in the Renaissance and established him as a major critic. Written as a formal defense, his role was to elevate the status of poetry against Puritan attacks (like Stephen Gosson's School of Abuse) that condemned it as a waste of time and a breeder of lies and immorality.
* Poet as Creator: Sidney reclaims the classical term Poet (meaning 'maker'), arguing that the poet, unlike other artists, is not bound to merely imitate the imperfect reality of Nature. The poet creates a "golden world"—a more perfect, idealised world that Nature herself fails to produce—thus asserting the superiority of poetry to history and philosophy.
* Didactic Function: The key to his defence is the moral function of poetry. He famously states that poetry's aim is "to teach and delight." It is more effective than history (which teaches by example but is confined to fact) and philosophy (which teaches by precept but is abstract) because poetry uses the attractive power of fiction to move men to virtuous action. The poet, through the example of the perfect hero, makes virtue concrete and desirable.
* Judgement on English Poetry: Sidney also provides practical criticism, lamenting the low state of contemporary English drama and poetry, but praises Chaucer and certain lyrics, calling for English poets to master the art of prosody and achieve excellence. His Apology essentially saved poetry's reputation in England and set the standard for subsequent literary analysis.
(c) Elaborate the idea of Imagination as a major theme in Romantic literary criticism.
The concept of Imagination is perhaps the most central and revolutionary theme in Romantic literary criticism, contrasting sharply with the Neoclassical emphasis on Reason and Fancy.
* Creative Power: For Romantic critics, especially Coleridge (in Biographia Literaria), Imagination is not just a tool for combining images, but a divine, primary creative power. It is the very faculty by which the poet sees the world and creates a unified work of art. The Primary Imagination is the "living Power and prime Agent of all human perception," while the Secondary Imagination is the poetic power that "dissolves, diffuses, dissipates, in order to recreate," shaping and fusing diverse elements into an organic whole.
* Contrast with Fancy: Coleridge distinguished it from Fancy, which he saw as a mechanical faculty that merely aggregates or combines pre-existing, fixed images. Imagination is dynamic, transformative, and synthesising.
* Wordsworth's View: While Wordsworth used the term 'Imagination' to describe the power that elevates common life to the sublime, he tended to blend it more with a high degree of sensibility and feeling, making it the faculty that perceives the "grandeur in the common operations of the elements."
* Transcendence: Ultimately, Romantic critics elevated Imagination from a lesser mental faculty to the highest human power, linking the poet to the divine act of creation and establishing the poet's unique importance in society.
(d) Outline the main concerns of the New Critical advocacy of textual 'close reading'.
New Criticism, a dominant critical movement in the mid-20th century (prominent figures include I. A. Richards, T. S. Eliot, John Crowe Ransom, and Cleanth Brooks), strongly advocated for 'close reading' (or 'practical criticism') as its central method.
* Focus on the Text: The primary concern was to study the literary work as an autonomous object—a self-contained entity whose meaning is determined only by the relationships between its parts, not by external factors.
* Exclusion of External Factors: New Critics famously rejected the use of external information in interpretation. This included the author's biography or intention (the Intentional Fallacy) and the reader's emotional response (the Affective Fallacy).
* Analysis of Form and Structure: Close reading focused on a detailed, rigorous analysis of the text's formal elements, such as irony, paradox, ambiguity, metaphor, symbol, and structure. These elements were seen as mechanisms that create a unified, complex meaning.
* Organic Unity: The goal of close reading was to demonstrate the organic unity of the text—how all its parts work together to create a single, coherent meaning, often achieved by resolving apparent complexities or contradictions (like paradoxes) into a unified whole. This method aimed to make literary criticism an objective, rigorous, and scientific discipline.
5. Answer any three from the following questions (each in around 300 words): (8x3=24)
(a) Assess the importance of Johnson's Preface in the context of eighteenth century Neoclassical criticism.
Samuel Johnson's Preface to Shakespeare (1765) is a monumental work that holds immense importance in 18th-century Neoclassical criticism, simultaneously upholding its principles and challenging its rigidity.
* Adherence to Neoclassical Tenets: Johnson begins by affirming Neoclassical values. He praises Shakespeare for his adherence to Nature (meaning universal human nature), stating that his characters are not individuals but species, and that his work has stood the test of time ("the voice of the people is the voice of God"). He values the general truth and moral instruction found in the plays, aligning with the Neoclassical demand for literature to both "teach and delight." He also finds fault in Shakespeare, such as his failure to observe poetic justice and his sacrificing of virtue for convenience, which are typical Neoclassical moral criticisms.
* Revolutionary Challenge to Unities: The Preface's greatest importance lies in its rejection of the strict Classical Unities of Time and Place. Johnson argues that the audience knows they are watching a play, not reality, and therefore the strict limits are unnecessary. His famous quote, "The truth is, that the spectators are always in their senses, and know, from the first act to the last, that the stage is only a stage, and that the players are only players," dismantled this cornerstone of strict Neoclassicism by appealing to common sense and the power of theatrical illusion.
* A New Critical Balance: The Preface is important for providing a balanced and realistic critique. It acknowledges Shakespeare's faults but ultimately elevates him for his genius in portraying human nature. By integrating the formal demands of Neoclassicism with a deeper psychological and aesthetic understanding, Johnson's work effectively signalled the beginning of a shift in critical perspective, bridging the gap between the strict rationalism of the Neoclassical era and the dawning appreciation for imaginative freedom that would define Romanticism. It is a work of transition, consolidating the past while intelligently anticipating the future.
(b) Discuss the important premises of F. R. Leavis' New Criticism with reference to the text you have read.
F. R. Leavis was a major English critic associated with a distinctive form of "New Criticism" (or "Scrutiny criticism," after his journal), which focused on the moral, social, and cultural value of literature, differing from the American school's focus purely on textual autonomy. The important premises of Leavis's criticism are:
* High Value of Literature: Leavis believed literature, especially poetry and the novel, was a supreme form of human expression and a vital force in maintaining the health and sensitivity of a culture. His criticism was essentially a moral crusade against the perceived decline of cultural standards due to industrialisation and mass media.
* 'The Great Tradition': He famously posited a "Great Tradition" of English novelists (Austen, Eliot, James, Conrad, Lawrence) who exhibited a serious moral preoccupation and a profound awareness of life. His criticism was deeply evaluative, judging works based on their capacity to enrich and enlarge human consciousness.
* "This is so, isn't it?": Leavis's method was characterized by a close, sensitive reading of the text, but this reading was always conducted in a dialogic spirit. The aim was to articulate the intrinsic quality of the work and implicitly invite the reader to confirm the judgment: "This is so, isn't it?" This method was subjective yet rigorous, seeking to establish shared critical values.
* Moral and Social Criterion: Unlike the American New Critics, who dismissed the Affective Fallacy, Leavis's judgment was inseparable from his assessment of a work's moral seriousness, emotional maturity, and the quality of the life it presented. His 'New Criticism' was less about formal structure and more about the quality of the sensibility informing the work. For example, in his essay on 'The Line of Wit' (from Revaluation), he argues for the superior emotional and intellectual maturity of Metaphysical poets (like Donne) over the Augustans (like Pope), because the former's work exhibits a living, integrated sensibility.
(c) Trace the history of Classical Roman Criticism and highlight some of the important texts.
Classical Roman Criticism, though heavily influenced by the Greeks (especially Aristotle), developed its own practical and rhetorical focus, moving from abstract theory to issues of language, style, and effective oratory.
* Early Influence and Horace (c. 1st Century BC): The foundation of Roman criticism is found in Horace's Ars Poetica (The Art of Poetry). This work, written in verse, became the primary critical authority for centuries, especially during the Renaissance and Neoclassical periods. It is known for its practical advice, its emphasis on decorum (appropriateness of style to subject), the fusion of "utili et dulce" (profit and delight), and the famous line "If you would weep, you must first feel grief yourself."
* Focus on Oratory and Style: Roman critics were more concerned with effective public discourse and legal/political oratory. Cicero (1st Century BC) was a major figure whose works like De Oratore discussed the ideal orator, blending philosophy and rhetoric, and defining the three aims of the orator as to teach, to delight, and to move.
* Longinus (c. 1st Century AD): The third key figure is the anonymous author, traditionally known as Longinus, of On the Sublime. This work is a departure from the rational, rule-based criticism of Horace. It focuses on the quality of "Sublime" (loftiness or ekstasis) in writing—that transcendent, overwhelming power in language that moves the reader out of themselves. Longinus explores the sources of this greatness, including great thought and vehement passion, and is a unique work that foreshadows Romantic and expressive theories.
* Influence: In summary, Roman criticism, through the practicality and accessibility of Horace and the expressive power of Longinus, was instrumental in transmitting and shaping Greek critical thought for the subsequent centuries, with its influence peaking in the Neoclassical era.
OR
(d) What are the major characteristics of Victorian Criticism? Discuss briefly.
Victorian literary criticism (c. 1837–1901) was characterised by a shift from the Romantic emphasis on imagination to a more social, moral, and cultural function of literature. It emerged in a period of rapid industrial, scientific, and religious change, which deeply concerned the critics.
* Moral and Social Focus: Unlike the Romantic focus on the inner life, Victorian criticism, exemplified by Matthew Arnold and Thomas Carlyle, placed a heavy emphasis on the moral, ethical, and social utility of art. Literature was often seen as a replacement for declining religious faith—a vehicle to preserve culture, refine the soul, and guide the nation. Arnold's famous goal was to propagate "the best that is known and thought in the world."
* Cultural and Evaluative Role: Critics took on the role of cultural evaluators and educators. Arnold, particularly in Culture and Anarchy and The Function of Criticism at the Present Time, saw criticism as a "disinterested endeavour" to establish a current of fresh ideas and assess the value of literature in terms of its "high seriousness" and capacity for truth.
* Historical and Biographical Context: While not completely abandoning close reading, critics began to give more weight to the historical and biographical context of a work, viewing literature as an expression of its age and the writer's life. This contrasts with the later New Critical focus purely on the text.
* Aestheticism as Counter-Movement: Towards the end of the Victorian era, a counter-movement known as Aestheticism (key figures include Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde) emerged, championing 'art for art's sake'. This directly opposed the dominant moralizing trend, arguing that art should be appreciated purely for its beauty and sensory experience, thus foreshadowing the modernist break with Victorian norms.
(e) Discuss the significance of S. T. Coleridge as a Romantic critic with particular reference to his Biographia Literaria.
S. T. Coleridge is arguably the most profound and philosophically rigorous of the English Romantic critics, with his Biographia Literaria (1817) being a work of seminal importance that provided the theoretical underpinnings for the entire movement.
* The Theory of Imagination: Coleridge's most significant contribution is his revolutionary distinction between Fancy and Imagination (Primary and Secondary). He elevates Imagination to the status of a transformative, quasi-divine, and "esemplastic" (shaping into one) power that synthesises the subjective and objective worlds. This established a new, high status for the poet as a creator, distinct from the Neoclassical view of the poet as a skillful imitator. This single concept provided the philosophical justification for the Romantic focus on the poet's unique creative mind.
* Organicity vs. Mechanism: He introduced the concept of organic form, arguing that a great work of art is like a living plant, where the form grows naturally out of the subject matter. This contrasted with the Neoclassical view of mechanical form, where external rules (like the Unities) are merely imposed upon the material. This idea allowed for a flexible critical evaluation based on a work's internal coherence.
* Critical Examination of Wordsworth: While ostensibly a critical autobiography, a major significance of the Biographia is Coleridge's detailed and complex examination of Wordsworth's theories on poetic diction and the nature of poetry as laid out in the Preface to Lyrical Ballads. He agreed with Wordsworth's emphasis on emotion and nature but rejected the notion that there is no essential difference between the language of prose and metrical composition, thereby offering a crucial corrective and a more sophisticated theory of poetic language.
Coleridge's work shifted the focus of criticism permanently from the rules of the genre (Neoclassicism) or the moral effect (Sidney/Johnson) to the poet's creative process and the psychology of creation, cementing his position as the theoretical giant of Romantic criticism.
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