Real - MA 2nd Semester (New) 2020 — Literary Criticism: Classical to Modern

1. (a) Answer the following questions in one/two sentence(s):

(i) On what ground did Plato reject poets from his ideal society?

Plato rejected poets because they imitate mere appearances (the sensible world), which are copies of the true Forms, and their art appeals to the lower, irrational part of the soul, corrupting citizens.

(ii) What, according to Aristotle, is 'Catharsis'?

According to Aristotle, Catharsis is the purgation or purification of the emotions, specifically pity and fear, experienced by the audience upon witnessing a tragedy.

(iii) State any two faults or defects of style pointed out by Longinus in his work entitled On the Sublime.

Two defects of style pointed out by Longinus are Tumidity (pompous or inflated language that is not inspired) and Puerility (a schoolboyish style that is over-labored and frigid).

(iv) What is meant by the phrase 'art for art's sake'?

The phrase 'art for art's sake' (L'art pour l'art) means that the intrinsic value of art is in its beauty and form alone, and it should be judged independent of any moral, political, or didactic function.

(v) State any one feature of Neoclassical Criticism.

One key feature of Neoclassical Criticism is the adherence to "Rules" based on classical Greek and Roman literature, such as the three dramatic unities (Time, Place, and Action).

(vi) Mention the names of any two exponents of Romantic Criticism.

Two exponents of Romantic Criticism are William Wordsworth and S. T. Coleridge.

(vii) Who was the main figure behind the Touchstone Method?

The main figure behind the Touchstone Method was the Victorian critic Matthew Arnold.

(viii) Mention the name of the book by F. R. Leavis in which the essay, 'Line of Wit' appears.

The essay 'Line of Wit' appears in F. R. Leavis's book Revaluation: Tradition and Development in English Poetry.

1. (b) Choose the correct option from the following:

(i) Principles of Literary Criticism is a book by

(3) I. A. Richards

(ii) Which one among the following points cannot be considered a theme of Samuel Johnson's Preface to Shakespeare?

(3) Intentionality (Johnson focuses on Shakespeare's merits, faults, and adherence to nature, not on authorial intent as a critical premise).

(iii) Who defined poetry as the 'spontaneous overflow of powerful emotions'?

(4) William Wordsworth

(iv) In which year was S. T. Coleridge's Biographia Literaria published?

(2) 1817

1. (c) Fill in the blanks:

(i) The root of _____ literary criticism can be traced to France from where it diffused to England and other parts of Europe.

The root of Neoclassical literary criticism can be traced to France from where it diffused to England and other parts of Europe.

(ii) Plato mentions an 'ancient quarrel' between poetry and philosophy in his book titled, _____.

Plato mentions an 'ancient quarrel' between poetry and philosophy in his book titled, The Republic.

(iii) _____ is a quality whose effect is to 'transport' (ekstasis) the reader out of themselves.

The Sublime is a quality whose effect is to 'transport' (ekstasis) the reader out of themselves.

(iv) _____ first used the term 'New Criticism'.

J. E. Spingarn first used the term 'New Criticism'.

Page 2: Questions 2 and 3

2. Answer any five from the following questions (each in around 50 words):

(a) What, according to Wimsatt and Beardsley, does the term 'Affective Fallacy' mean?

The Affective Fallacy, coined by Wimsatt and Beardsley, is the error of judging or evaluating a literary work by its emotional effects on the reader. They argue that this approach leads to impressionism and subjectivity, shifting the focus away from the objective analysis of the text itself.

(b) Who was the founder of the journal titled, Scrutiny? What was its aim?

The founder of the journal Scrutiny (1932–1953) was F. R. Leavis. Its aim was to establish a serious, responsible, and high standard of critical judgment and to promote "The Great Tradition" of English literature as a means of improving cultural and moral standards in society.

(c) Explain the concept of Touchstone Method.

The Touchstone Method, proposed by Matthew Arnold, suggests that to judge a poet's work, one should compare it with "lines and expressions" of the greatest poets (like Homer, Dante, and Shakespeare). These short passages serve as "touchstones" for detecting the presence or absence of high poetic quality, especially high seriousness and truth.

(d) State any two important characteristics of English criticism during the Renaissance.

Two important characteristics of English criticism during the Renaissance were the "Defence of Poetry" against Puritan attacks (arguing for its moral and civilizing power, e.g., Sidney's Apology) and the growing attempt to establish rules and forms for English literature by adapting classical models (like the dramatic unities).

(e) Write briefly on any one of the themes evident in the prescribed chapters from Coleridge's Biographia Literaria.

One major theme in Biographia Literaria is the distinction between Fancy and Imagination. Coleridge defines Imagination as a vital, unifying, and creative power, while Fancy is merely a mechanical process of aggregating or combining fixed and passive images. This distinction elevates the poet's role as a true creator.

(f) Mention two faults of Shakespeare as pointed out by Samuel Johnson.

Two faults of Shakespeare pointed out by Samuel Johnson in his Preface are:

 * Sacrificing Virtue to Convenience: He often neglects the moral purpose of drama by making his virtuous characters speak immoral speeches, or by allowing bad characters to escape their just punishment.

 * Uneven Plotting/Carelessness: He is often so busy with the 'great' parts of his work that he neglects the 'small' ones, resulting in loose and poorly constructed endings, and uneven application of effort.

3. Answer any four from the following questions (each in around 150 words):

(a) Write briefly on Pope's idea of Nature.

Alexander Pope, a key Neoclassical critic and poet, held a specific idea of Nature that was central to his critical and creative work. For Pope, Nature was not the wild, untamed landscape celebrated by Romantics, but a synonym for "Truth" or "Universal Human Experience." It represented what is general, constant, and accessible to human reason. In poetry, "Nature" meant the standard of classical antiquity and the shared, enduring qualities of mankind. Pope famously advised, "First follow Nature, and your judgment frame / By her just standard, which is still the same." This meant poets should study the ancient Greek and Roman masters, as they successfully imitated this universal Nature. His view emphasized Order, Clarity, and Reason over individual fancy, leading to a focus on forms like the heroic couplet and satire, which embodied balance and wit.

(b) What, according to Wordsworth, is the function of poetry?

In his Preface to Lyrical Ballads, William Wordsworth argues that the primary function of poetry is to give immediate pleasure, but this pleasure is a means to a higher end: to enlarge and refine human sensibility. The poet is a person "endowed with more lively sensibility" who connects man's feelings with Nature. The function of poetry is to "purify the affections" and lead the reader to a deeper understanding of human nature and the world. By focusing on "humble and rustic life" and using "language really used by men," poetry's function is to strip away the artificiality of urban life and reawaken the reader's emotions and moral being. It is an act of spontaneous emotion that is "recollected in tranquility," ultimately fostering sympathy, knowledge, and delight in the reader.

(c) What are the three ways to maintain disinterestedness according to Matthew Arnold as stated in his The Function of Criticism at the Present Time?

In The Function of Criticism at the Present Time, Matthew Arnold argues that the critic must cultivate disinterestedness—an objective, detached approach—to fulfill the essential function of "a free play of the mind on all subjects." The three ways to maintain this disinterestedness are:

 * Keeping Aloof from Practical Politics: The critic must resist the temptation to become entangled in immediate political or social agitation. To maintain objectivity, the critic must not become a "slave to the passing moment" and its "stock notions."

 * Steadily Observing the Object Itself: The critic must focus relentlessly on the work or idea under scrutiny, resisting the tendency to relate it merely to local prejudices, party ends, or fleeting historical circumstances.

 * To Learn and Propagate the Best that is Known and Thought in the World: The critic should constantly seek to understand and transmit an "order of ideas"—the finest ideas from all cultures and times—rather than promoting personal or national biases. This cultivation of a global standard ensures a broad and impartial perspective.

(d) Explain Longinus' concept of the 'sublime'.

Longinus, in On the Sublime, defines the sublime (hypsos) as a quality of great writing that elevates the soul and transports the reader out of their rational self, leading to profound awe and ecstasy. It is not merely eloquence but a moment of literary genius. He identifies five sources of the sublime: Grandeur of Thought (the most important, stemming from a noble mind), Vehement and Inspired Passion, the skillful use of Figures of Speech and Figures of Thought, Dignity of Diction (noble and striking language), and the overall Dignified and Elevated Composition. The sublime is characterized by its irresistible force that leaves a lasting impression, moving beyond persuasion to total conviction, where "greatness is the echo of a great soul."

(e) Describe briefly Aristotle's use of the word 'Catharsis' in his definition of tragedy as evident in Poetics.

Aristotle uses the term 'Catharsis' as a crucial element in his definition of tragedy in Poetics. Tragedy is defined as the imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude, which through pity and fear effects the proper purgation or purification (catharsis) of these emotions. The audience witnesses the protagonist's downfall, which evokes pity (for the undeserving suffering) and fear (because the misfortune could happen to them). Catharsis is the release of these pent-up emotions, not by eliminating them, but by purifying and regulating them. This process provides a sense of emotional equilibrium and relief, transforming the painful experience of the tragedy into an intellectually and emotionally satisfying artistic experience.

Page 3: Questions 4 and 5

4. Answer any three from the following questions (each in around 250 words):

(a) Give an idea of Platonic theory of Forms.

Plato's Theory of Forms (or Ideas) is the core of his philosophy, positing a radical duality between two worlds: the World of Sense and the World of Forms.

 * The World of Sense: This is the physical world we perceive daily, characterized by change, impermanence, and imperfection. Objects in this world are merely shadows, copies, or imitations of true reality.

 * The World of Forms: This is the ultimate, transcendent reality, consisting of eternal, perfect, and unchanging Forms or Ideas. The Forms are the non-physical essences of all things and concepts (e.g., the Form of Beauty, Justice, or a Circle). They are the universal blueprints for everything in the sensible world. A beautiful object in our world is only beautiful because it "participates" in the Form of Beauty.

 * Key Characteristics of Forms: They are immutable (unchangeable), eternal, intelligible (known only through intellect, not sense), and paradigmatic (models). The highest Form is the Form of the Good, which illuminates all other Forms and is the source of all knowledge and being, analogous to the sun in the Allegory of the Cave.

 * Significance: The theory has profound implications for aesthetics and criticism, as Plato's rejection of art is based on this theory. Since art merely imitates the sensible world (which is itself an imitation of the Forms), it is a "third remove from truth" and therefore essentially deceptive.

(b) Examine the role of Philip Sidney as a critic with particular reference to his An Apology for Poetry.

Sir Philip Sidney's An Apology for Poetry (c. 1581) establishes him as the foremost English Renaissance literary critic. Written in response to Puritan attacks like Stephen Gosson's The School of Abuse, Sidney's Apology is a spirited, eloquent defense of poetry that elevates its status and defines its moral purpose.

 * Poetry's Superiority: Sidney argues that poetry is superior to both History and Philosophy. Philosophy teaches by abstract precepts, which are too general. History teaches by example, which is limited by actual events. Poetry, however, combines the two: the poet creates a "golden world"—a more perfect world than the "brazen world" of nature—to teach virtue by offering perfect, moral examples (the "speaking picture" of virtue) that are easily grasped and delightful.

 * Purpose of Poetry: The ultimate end of poetry is "to teach and delight," but teaching is paramount. Poetry's delightful nature is the "sweetening" that makes the "souring" of virtuous teaching palatable, thereby moving men to virtuous action.

 * Refutation of Charges: He refutes the four main charges against poetry: that it is a waste of time (it is the oldest and best teacher), that the poet is a liar (the poet never affirms his fictions as fact), that it is the "nurse of abuse" (it is not the art but its misuse that is to blame), and that Plato banished poets (Plato only banished the abusive poets, not poetry itself).

 * A "Right Poet": Sidney defines the "right poet" as a "maker" or creator who, unlike other artists, is not confined by nature but creates a superior, ideal version of it. His Apology not only defends poetry but provides a comprehensive theory of its nature, function, and enduring power, making it a seminal text in English criticism.

(c) Elaborate the idea of Imagination as a major theme in Romantic literary criticism.

The concept of Imagination is perhaps the single most important and radical theme in Romantic literary criticism, serving as the central creative and cognitive faculty that distinguishes the Romantic movement from the Neoclassical emphasis on Reason.

 * The Creative Power: Romantics saw Imagination as far more than mere fancy or mental image-making. For Wordsworth, it was a power that "modifies" and "actuates" the materials of the external world, fusing thought and feeling to perceive the unity in the universe and elevate the mind. The poet's imagination is the source of all originality and genius.

 * Coleridge's Distinction: S. T. Coleridge provided the most systematic treatment in Biographia Literaria, distinguishing between two forms:

   * Primary Imagination: The "living power and prime agent of all human perception," a universal, unconscious faculty that shapes the raw data of sense into coherent experience—essentially the mind's ability to see the world as a whole.

   * Secondary Imagination: The poetic, conscious faculty that "dissolves, diffuses, dissipates, in order to re-create." It is an echo of the Primary Imagination, but it is responsible for the conscious artistic creation, unifying diverse elements into a new, organic whole.

 * Access to Truth: Imagination, for Romantics, was a "higher reason"—a means of accessing spiritual, moral, and universal truths that were beyond the reach of mere empirical observation or the rational intellect (Understanding). It connected the individual mind with the spirit of the universe and was thus essential for all profound human experience and moral understanding.

(d) Outline the main concerns of the New Critical advocacy of textual 'close reading'.

New Criticism (dominant in the mid-20th century, championed by critics like I. A. Richards, T. S. Eliot, Cleanth Brooks, and W. K. Wimsatt) strongly advocated for 'close reading' as the only valid method for literary analysis. Its main concerns centered on the autonomy of the text and the integrity of literary experience.

 * Autonomy of the Text: The primary concern was that a literary work is a self-sufficient, autonomous object—a complete unit of meaning. Meaning resides within the text, not outside it. This led to the rejection of external factors like the author's biography or intent, which they termed the Intentional Fallacy, and the reader's emotions, which they called the Affective Fallacy.

 * The Formal Analysis: Close reading is a meticulous, systematic analysis of the text's formal elements. This includes a focus on:

   * Verbal Texture: Analyzing words, rhythm, meter, and diction.

   * Structure and Form: How the various parts relate to create an organic unity.

   * Tension and Paradox: The New Critics prized the use of irony, paradox, and ambiguity, seeing them as the means by which the poem holds conflicting ideas in productive tension, leading to its richness of meaning.

 * Defining Meaning: The concern was to discover the unity of form and content—how the poet's language and structure work together to create a complex, coherent statement. The goal was an objective interpretation based only on the evidence of the words on the page.

5. Answer any three from the following questions (each in around 300 words):

(a) Assess the importance of Johnson's Preface in the context of eighteenth-century Neoclassical criticism.

Samuel Johnson's Preface to Shakespeare (1765) is a landmark achievement that represents the climax of Neoclassical criticism while simultaneously introducing a profound, practical sense of human nature and historical context that anticipates Romanticism. Its importance in the 18th-century context is multifaceted:

 * Neoclassical Principles in Practice: The Preface is a masterful application of key Neoclassical tenets. Johnson judges Shakespeare by the highest classical standard: Nature. He praises Shakespeare as "the poet of nature; the poet that holds up to his readers a faithful mirror of manners and of life." He sees Shakespeare's greatness in his universality, his ability to depict human nature in its general state, free from the limitations of local custom or transient fashion. This adherence to the "Great Chain of Being" (the general order of things) is deeply Neoclassical.

 * A "Historical" Approach to the Rules: Crucially, Johnson uses common sense to defend Shakespeare against the rigid rules of French Neoclassicism. His most famous defense is against the Unity of Place and Time. He argues that the audience is never genuinely deceived into thinking the stage is the actual location, thus the unities are not necessary for poetic faith. He famously stated, "there is always an appeal open from criticism to nature," effectively prioritizing the power of genius and nature over the tyranny of arbitrary rules. This move, though grounded in rational critique, significantly loosened the grip of dogmatic rules on English criticism.

 * Balanced Judgment: The Preface is important for its unflinching critical balance. Unlike earlier critics who were either blind admirers or harsh detractors, Johnson systematically lists Shakespeare's "excellences" (universality, dialogue true to life) alongside his "defects" (uneven plotting, lack of moral purpose, excessive punning). This thorough, structured, and objective assessment provided a model for literary scholarship and criticism that valued rational inquiry over mere passion.

 * Elevating Shakespeare: By placing Shakespeare at the very top of the literary canon and presenting a scholarly, meticulously edited text, Johnson cemented Shakespeare's status for the next two centuries, making the Preface an indispensable document in the history of Shakespearean and general literary criticism.

(b) Discuss the important premises of F. R. Leavis' New Criticism with reference to the text you have read.

F. R. Leavis's form of New Criticism (often termed 'Scrutiny criticism' after his journal) had a distinct moral and cultural orientation, differentiating it from its American counterparts. His criticism was less formalist and more concerned with the cultural and moral health of society, which he believed was reflected and preserved in a literary "Great Tradition."

 * The Moral Function of Literature: A key premise is the belief that great literature is an "embodiment of the finest expression of language" and a "criticism of life." For Leavis, literature must possess a serious moral and human significance, offering a vital and authentic engagement with life's realities. The critic's role is to assess a work based on the author's "living response to life" and its contribution to the cultural continuum.

 * The Great Tradition: Leavis's premise of the "Great Tradition"—the line of English novelists (Jane Austen, George Eliot, Henry James, Joseph Conrad, D. H. Lawrence) who show a "reverent openness before life" and a profound moral intensity—was crucial. It served as a canon-forming mechanism for establishing a standard of moral and stylistic excellence against the perceived degradation of modern mass culture.

 * "Close Reading" as Evaluation: Leavis used close reading not merely for formal analysis, but as a tool for evaluation. His famous methodology, which he termed the "essential tool of a discipline of sensibility," involved precise attention to the words on the page to determine the quality and sincerity of the writer's experience. Unlike American New Critics, Leavis’s textual scrutiny always looked beyond the words to gauge the moral energy and life-affirming power embodied in the style.

 * The Critic as Ideal Reader: Leavis believed the critic must be the "complete reader"—one with a highly cultivated sensibility, capable of making the "finest and sharpest relevant discriminations." Criticism, for Leavis, was a public function, a collaborative effort to establish and articulate the highest cultural values, which were seen as constantly under threat from commercialism and journalistic mediocrity.

(c) Trace the history of Classical Roman Criticism and highlight some of the important texts.

Classical Roman Criticism, though heavily influenced by the Greeks, developed its own distinct character, focusing largely on Rhetoric, practical application, and ethical purpose. Roman critics, unlike the speculative Greeks, were often practitioners (poets, orators) whose critical work aimed to define rules for artistic success and social utility.

 * Early Influence and Pragmatism: Roman criticism began by adapting Greek aesthetic theories to the Latin language and Roman life. The Romans were less concerned with abstract ontological questions (like Plato's Forms) and more with practical excellence in communication and moral instruction. The focus was on the orator and the poet as effective citizens.

 * Horace and the Ars Poetica (The Art of Poetry): The most significant early text is Horace's Epistle to the Pisos (or Ars Poetica). This work, written in verse, became the "bible" of Neoclassicism centuries later. Its central tenets include:

   * Utile dulci (Pleasure and Profit): Poetry must both "instruct and delight"—its primary aim is both moral and pleasurable.

   * Propriety and Decorum: The work must possess internal consistency and suitability (decorum) in character, style, and subject matter.

   * Imitation of the Greeks: He advocated the imitation of the best Greek models as a guide to achieving perfection.

 * Cicero and Rhetoric: Marcus Tullius Cicero, a celebrated orator and philosopher, focused on the theory and practice of rhetoric. His works like De Oratore established the qualifications of the ideal orator, blending eloquence with profound knowledge and moral rectitude, making rhetoric the central discipline of Roman intellectual life.

 * Quintilian and Institutio Oratoria (The Education of the Orator): Quintilian's magnum opus is a comprehensive treatise on the training of the orator from infancy, linking the ability to speak well with moral character ("a good man speaking well"). It provides detailed instructions on every aspect of rhetorical theory and style, establishing the standard for all subsequent pedagogical texts in the West.

 * Longinus and On the Sublime: Though likely a Greek-speaking writer in the Roman Empire, Longinus's On the Sublime is often included. It broke the rationalistic tradition by focusing on the effect of transporting ecstasy (ekstasis), prioritizing the emotional, transcendent power of great writing over mere correctness or practical utility, thus anticipating Romanticism.

OR

What are the major characteristics of Victorian Criticism? Discuss briefly.

Victorian literary criticism (roughly 1837–1901) was marked by a shift from the Romantic emphasis on individual genius to a concern for the critic's social and moral responsibility amidst rapid industrial, social, and scientific change. The era saw the professionalization of criticism and a deep engagement with culture as a healing force.

 * The Moral and Social Function: The most prominent characteristic is the strong emphasis on the ethical and cultural mission of criticism. Critics like Matthew Arnold saw culture and criticism as necessary antidotes to the "anarchy" of the age. Arnold famously defined poetry as a "criticism of life" and the critic's role as the disinterested effort "to know the best that is known and thought in the world" and to propagate it for society's spiritual health.

 * Historical and Biographical Context: Unlike later New Critics, Victorian critics (especially those influenced by continental figures like Taine and Sainte-Beuve) embraced a historical and contextual approach. They believed that a work of art could only be fully understood by examining the author's life, race, milieu, and moment. This provided the critical framework for the burgeoning field of literary history.

 * Decline in Creative Criticism: While critics were culturally influential, there was a perceived decline in the systematic, theoretical rigor of the early 19th century. Many major writers of the time—Carlyle, Ruskin, Macaulay—were primarily social, historical, or moral commentators, and their literary criticism was often incidental to their broader cultural agenda.

 * The Rise of Aestheticism/Impressionism: Towards the end of the Victorian era, a counter-movement emerged, championing "Art for Art's Sake" (L'art pour l'art). Figures like Walter Pater and Oscar Wilde rejected the Arnoldian moralizing, asserting that art's purpose was purely aesthetic: to give a "quickened, pulse-like sense of life." Criticism, for Pater, became more impressionistic—a record of the sensitive individual's unique response to the beauty of the work. This tension between the moral/social duty and pure aestheticism defines the period.

(d) Discuss the significance of S. T. Coleridge as a Romantic critic with particular reference to his Biographia Literaria.

S. T. Coleridge is arguably the most philosophical and significant of the English Romantic critics, whose work, especially Biographia Literaria (1817), revolutionized critical discourse by moving its focus from judging external rules to exploring the psychology of the creative mind.

 * The Theory of Imagination: The Biographia’s chief significance lies in its famous distinction between Fancy and Imagination. By defining Imagination as the vital, active, and unifying power that re-creates and shapes reality (distinguishing between Primary and Secondary Imagination), Coleridge elevates the poet from a mere imitator (the Neoclassical view) to a creator whose art embodies a truth higher than that of the phenomenal world. This psychological depth gave a philosophical foundation to the entire Romantic aesthetic.

 * The Concept of Organic Unity: Coleridge introduced the principle of Organic Form, arguing that the form of a great work of art is not an external shell imposed by rules (like the Neoclassical "mechanic form") but is inherent and grows from within, "like the growth of a tree." The parts must be vitally related to the whole, and the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. This idea shifted critical focus toward the internal coherence and structural integrity of the artwork.

 * Defense of Shakespeare: Coleridge applied his principles to Shakespeare, providing a profound revaluation. Moving beyond Johnson's analysis of "excellences and defects," Coleridge argued that Shakespeare's genius lay in his judgment and his conscious art, which perfectly unified his diverse elements. He defended Shakespeare's blend of tragedy and comedy not as a "fault," but as a reflection of the organic unity of nature and human experience.

 * Philosophical Method: The Biographia established a philosophical and speculative method for English criticism, drawing heavily on German Idealism. It marked a decisive break from the empirical, rule-bound approach of the 18th century, making literary theory a profound investigation into the nature of creativity, perception, and the artistic process. Its concepts remain foundational to modern literary theory.